RESUMO Estudou-se o efeito da taxa de resfriamento sobre a cinética de formação da martensita e sua evolução microestrutural em um aço inoxidável ferrítico com 0,011 %C - 11,1 %Cr - 0,013 N, usando a técnica de dilatometria e a microscopia ótica. Amostras foram austenitizadas a 1000°C por um minuto, seguida de resfriamento sob várias taxas até a temperatura ambiente. A microestrutura obtida é composta, predominantemente, por martensita temperada com uma pequena fração volumétrica de ferrita, com valores de microdureza Vickers variando de 319±4 HV0.2 a 338±4 HV0.2, quando as taxas de resfriamento aumentam de 0,5 para 100 °C/s. Os resultados mostram que as temperaturas de início e fim de formação da martensita diminuem com o aumento da taxa de resfriamento. A taxa de transformação martensítica cresce abruptamente alcançando o valor máximo quando a fração de martensita atinge aproximadamente 42 %, e então, essa taxa diminui até zero quando a transformação da martensita chega ao fim. A taxa máxima da transformação martensítica cresce com o aumento da taxa de resfriamento, sendo 0,01 s-1 a 0,5 °C/s e 2,54 s-1 para 100 °C/s.

ABSTRACT The effect of the cooling rate on martensite formation kinetic and its microstructural evolution in a ferritic stainless steel with 0.011 %C - 11.1 %Cr - 0.013 N was studied, using the dilatometric technique and optical microscopy. Samples were austenitized at 1000°C during one minute, followed by cooling under various rates to room temperature. The microstructure consists predominantly composed of martensite with a small volumetric fraction of ferrite, and the values of Vickers microhardness vary from 319±4 HV0.2 to 338±4 HV0.2 when the cooling rates increase from 0.5 to 100 °C/s. The results show that the martensite start and finish temperatures decrease when the cooling rate increases. The martensitic transformation rate grows abruptly reaching the maximum value when the martensitic fraction is about 42 % and then it decreases to zero when the martensitic transformation comes to the end. The maximum rate of martensitic transformation grows with increase of cooling rate, being 0.01 s-1 to 0.5 °C/s and 2,54 s-1 to 100 °C/s.

Abstract Lab experiments were carried out to check the effect of some process parameters of nitriding, performed simultaneously with decarburization, on magnetic properties of 3%Si Grain-oriented silicon steel produced by a low slab reheating technology. The samples of (GO) 3% Si steel collected as 0.27mm cold-rolled were submitted to a continuous annealing process at two temperatures, 860 and 900ºC; three annealing times, 63.6, 95.4, and 119.25s; and three ammonia flows 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4Nm3/h. The nitrogen content obtained after the treatments was much higher than those obtained by the currently used process, and it increased as the ammonia flow rates and soaking times were increased, hindering the primary grain growth that adversely affected the magnetic properties. The increase of annealing temperature improved the decarburization and the magnetic properties. The best magnetic properties were found in the sample with the highest primary grain size and the lowest amount of absorbed nitrogen. The success of this practice, in terms of magnetic properties, was pointed out to be based on a drastic reduction on strip nitrogen increase.

The effect of carbon content on the magnetic ageing index and Vickers hardness evolution on annealed samples of 2%Si non-oriented grain electrical steel was studied. Samples with 40 and 60ppm carbon content were subjected at ageing temperatures of 200 and 225ºC, respectively. During the ageing treatment, the cycle was interrupted on several time intervals in order to obtain the core loss and to determine Vickers hardness. The precipitates were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM). Using the software MatCalc, computer simulations of ε-carbide precipitation were performed and compared with experimental data from literature. The results for both carbon contents showed that the maximum hardness value was achieved in shorter time than that to achieve the maximum magnetic ageing, indicating that the critical size of precipitates more harmful to the magnetic properties is larger than the ones that maximize the hardness.

Foi estudada a formação da austenita em condições isócronas em um aço de baixo carbono e microligado com Nb por meio de análise dilatométrica, com o ajuste dos dados à equação de Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK), para diferentes taxas de aquecimento e para três diferentes microestruturas iniciais. Foi mostrado que a cinética de austenitização da estrutura perlita+ferrita é mais rápida que a da martensita (martensita revenida) à taxa de aquecimento de 0,1ºC/s. Para taxas de aquecimento maiores que 0,1ºC/s, a cinética de austenitização da estrutura martensítica é maior que da estrutura perlita+ferrita. O parâmetro K da equação de JMAK aumenta com a taxa de aquecimento para as três microestruturas prévias e é maior para a microestrutura inicial composta de perlita+ferrita. A baixas taxas de aquecimento, a formação da austenita é controlada pela difusão de carbono, independentemente da microestrutura inicial. A altas taxas de aquecimento, a formação da austenita da microestrutura inicial composta de perlita+ferrita é uma transformação controlada pela interface.

The austenite formation under isochronal conditions in Nb microalloyed low carbon steel was studied by means of dilatometric analysis and the data was adjusted to the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) equation, for different heating rates and for three initial microstructures. It was shown that the kinetics of austenitization of a pearlite+ferrite structure is faster than that of martensite (tempered martensite) at a heating rate of 0.1ºC/s. For heating rates higher than 0.1ºC/s, the kinetics of austenitization of a martensite structure is faster than of pearlite+ferrite one. The K parameter of the JMAK equation increases with the heating rate for the three previous microstructures and it is greater for the initial microstructure composed of ferrite+pearlite. At lower heating rates, the formation of austenite in this steel is controlled by carbon diffusion, independently of the initial microstructure. At higher heating rates, the formation of austenite from an initial microstructure composed of pearlite and ferrite is controlled by interface-controlled transformation.

The processing of 3% Si steel is characterized by the use of MnS particles as a normal grain growth inhibitor. Experiments were carried out to investigate the grain growth in this material during heat treatments at low temperature. Industrial decarburized samples were annealed in the range 825-845 °C and a detailed study of grain size and texture was made by EBSD measurements. The primary grain size and texture were related to the secondary structure obtained after high temperature final annealing. The heat treatments for grain growth led to an increase in the mean grain size by 1.2 to 3 times, depending on the stability of MnS particles distribution. The increase of the primary grain size increased the core loss and decreased the magnetic induction of the fully processed material.

Foi estudada por dilatometria a variação das temperaturas críticas para a formação de austenita, com o aumento da velocidade de aquecimento. A análise foi realizada a velocidades de aquecimento entre 10 e 90ºC/s. Foram propostas equações empíricas para o cálculo de Ac3, em função da velocidade de aquecimento. O aumento da velocidade de aquecimento não afetou Ac1, mas Ac3 aumentou em 115ºC. As equações propostas se revelaram de uso mais geral, uma vez que também previram os resultados obtidos em trabalhos para outros aços com altos coeficientes de correlação.

The variation in critical temperatures for the formation of austenite when increasing the heating rate was studied by dilatometry. The analysis was performed at heating rates between 10 and 90ºC/s. Empirical equations are herein proposed for calculating Ac3 with respect to the heating rate. The results showed that an increase in the heating rate had no influence on Ac1, but Ac3 increased 115ºC. The equations proved to be of a more general use, as they also predicted the results of works on other steels with high values of correlation coefficients.

A formação da austenita em condições isócronas em um aço de baixo carbono e microligado com Nb, a diferentes taxas de aquecimento e usando curvas dilatométricas, foi estudada utilizando o modelo de Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK), em conjunção com a relação funcional entre a energia de ativação aparente e a taxa de aquecimento. Mostrou-se que essa relação funcional é logarítmica e que a energia de ativação aparente diminui de 152,5 para 118,1 kJ/mol, quando a taxa de aquecimento aumenta de 0,1 para 16 K/s, para o expoente n da equação de JMAK igual a 1,0.

The austenite formation under isochronal conditions in Nb micro-alloyed low carbon steel was studied using the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) model, for different heating rates and by means of dilatometric curves. The functional relationship between the apparent activation energy and heating rate was used in addition to this model. It was shown that this functional relationship is logarithmic and that the apparent activation energy decreases from 152.5 to 118.1 kJ/mol when the heating rate increases from 0.1 to 16 K/s, with the n exponent of the JMAK equation equal to 1.0.

The influence of processing parameters (slab thickness, water flow of interstand cooling and oil flow in roll gap lubrication system) on the thickness and composition of the tertiary scale formed during hot strip rolling, was studied in a low carbon steel in factory. The scale formed on the rolled surface was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and Mössbauer spectroscopy. It was observed that the combined effect of a greater rolling oil volume applied, larger bar thickness, and smaller amount of water flow during interstand cooling reduces the tertiary scale thickness. Besides, a smaller crack density in the samples is associated with greater rolling oil volume and smaller oxide scale thickness. The principal phase of the scale formed in hot-rolled steel strips is stoichiometric magnetite, without isomorphic substitutions.

Os efeitos da temperatura e do tempo sobre a cinética de revenimento foram estudados, utilizando chapas de um aço baixo carbono e microligado com Nb e de outro aço com composição química similar, porém sem Nb. A lei de cinética de revenimento foi estudada pela equação de Johnson, Mehl e Avrami, a partir da variação da dureza Vickers das amostras revenidas com a temperatura e com o tempo de revenimento para os dois aços. Para o aço sem Nb, verificou-se que a dureza praticamente não variou com o tempo de revenimento, para a temperatura de revenimento de 600°C, e que a dureza tende a saturar para altos tempos de revenimento, para as diferentes temperaturas de revenimento utilizadas. Para o aço com Nb, observou-se uma maior resistência ao revenimento para as temperaturas de revenimento de 500 e 600°C, associada à precipitação de partículas muito finas de carbonetos de Nb dispersos na ferrita. A energia de ativação, para o revenimento, para o aço sem Nb, é de 130kJ/mol e pode-se inferir que o mecanismo que limita a cinética de revenimento, é a difusão intersticial do carbono na ferrita. Para o aço com Nb, a energia de ativação, para o revenimento é de 180kJ/mol e pode-se inferir que o mecanismo que limita a cinética de revenimento é a difusão do Nb na ferrita.

The effect of temperature and time on tempering kinetics was studied by using a low carbon steel microalloyed with Nb (0,031) and another steel with a similar chemical composition, however without Nb. After determining the Vickers hardness values, the kinetics law of tempering was studied by the Jonhson-Mehl-Avrami equation using a variation of temperatures and time for both steels. The hardness of the steel without Nb did not change with the tempering time at 600ºC and tended to saturate at high tempering times, for the different tempering temperatures used. For the tempering temperatures of 500 and 600ºC, the steel with Nb has a greater tempering resistance and this effect is associated to the precipitation of very fine NbC particles dispersed in ferrite matrix. The activation energy of the tempering transformation of the steel without Nb is 130kJ/mol and it could be inferred that the mechanism that controls the tempering kinetics of this steel is the interstitial diffusion of carbon in the ferrite. In the steel with Nb the activation energy is 180kJ/mol and the mechanism that controls the tempering kinetics is the Nb diffusion in the ferrite.

The oxidation behavior of AISI 304 and AISI 430 stainless steels was investigated from 1100 °C up to 1200 °C. Mössbauer spectroscopy and x ray diffraction were used to access the phase composition of the formed scales. The main crystalline phases found in the oxidized materials at temperatures above 1100 °C were hematite and magnetite for AISI 430 steel, and hematite and a spinel-like phase for AISI 304 steel. Hematite was found to be the dominant oxide at lower temperatures, whereas magnetite preferentially forms at higher temperatures. The activation energy for oxidation is smaller for AISI 430 steel in relation to AISI 304 steel in the range of studied temperatures, and therefore the AISI 430 steel is less resistant towards oxidation at high temperatures.

Estudaram-se os efeitos da deformação na região de não recristalização da austenita e da taxa de resfriamento sobre a temperatura Bi (temperatura de início de transformação bainítica) e sobre a microestrutura final, de um aço ARBL bainítico de baixo carbono submetido a resfriamento contínuo, usando ensaios de torção a quente e resfriamento a gás He. As amostras foram submetidas a quatro programas de ensaios de torção, sendo quatro taxas de resfriamento acelerado para cada um. A evolução microestrutural com a taxa de resfriamento foi estudada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e por medição de dureza Vickers. Os resultados mostram que, para a taxa de resfriamento de 2ºC/s, a microestrutura é constituída de ferrita poligonal e bainita, independente do grau de deformação. Para taxas de resfriamento mais altas, a microestrutura é, predominantemente, bainítica, com uma pequena quantidade de ferrita poligonal fina. Verifica-se que, para um mesmo grau de deformação, uma maior taxa de resfriamento implica uma menor temperatura Bi, sendo esse efeito mais pronunciado para as amostras não deformadas; e que, para uma mesma taxa de resfriamento, uma maior deformação na região de não recristalização resulta em uma maior temperatura Bi.

The influence of deformation in the non-recrystallization region of austenite and cooling rates on the bainitic transformation temperature (Bi) and final microstructure were studied in HSLA low carbon bainitic steel by means of hot torsion tests and accelerated cooling. The samples were submitted to four programs of torsion tests with four accelerated cooling rates for each one. The microstructure change from the cooling rate was studied by scanning electron microscopy and Vickers hardness. The results show that for a 2ºC/s cooling rate, the microstructure is composed of bainite and polygonal ferrite, independent of the deformation degree. For higher cooling rates, the microstructure is predominantly bainitic with a small quantity of fine polygonal ferrite. It was observed that for the same amount of deformation, a higher cooling rate induced a smaller Bi temperature, and this effect is more pronounced in samples without deformation. Otherwise, for the same cooling rate, the higher deformation amount in non-recrystallization region caused a higher Bi temperature.

Estudou-se o efeito da rápida austenitização sobre as propriedades mecânicas de um aço SAE 1045, na condição de temperado e revenido a 600ºC. A microestrutura das amostras austenitizadas a 900 e 950ºC e temperadas imediatamente ao atingir essas temperaturas, têm a microestrutura constituída de martensita refinada, com pequena fração volumétrica de ferrita poligonal e ferrita acicular. Os valores dos limites de resistência e escoamento das amostras revenidas são fortemente dependentes do tempo de encharque. As transformações fases no revenimento têm efeitos similares sobre os limites de resistência e escoamento das amostras revenidas. Tais amostras têm altos valores da razão de escoamento (valor médio de 0,91). Os valores do produto do limite de resistência pelo alongamento percentual variaram de 32589MPa.% a 24150MPa.%. A otimização das propriedades mecânicas do aço SAE1045, com alta resistência mecânica e boa ductilidade, foi obtida com austenitização a 900ºC, têmpera imediatamente após atingir essa temperatura e revenimento a 600ºC por 100s.

This work studied the effect of fast austenitization on the mechanical properties of SAE1045 steel, as quenched and tempered. The samples austenitized at 900 and 950ºC, and immediately quenched after reaching these temperatures, showed microstructures of refined martensite, with small volume fractions of polygonal and acicular ferrites. The values of the tensile and yield strengths of the tempered samples are strongly dependent on the soaking time. The phase transformations during the tempering have similar effects on the tensile and yield strengths of the tempered samples. These samples have high yield ratio values (average of 0.91). The values of the product of the tensile strength for the percent elongation varied from 32589MPa% to 24150MPa%. The optimization of the mechanical properties of the SAE1045 steel, with high strength and ductility, was achieved for the austenitization at 900ºC, immediately quenched after reaching that temperature, and tempering at 600ºC for 100s.

Esse trabalho descreve o tratamento térmico por indução eletromagnética em tubos sem costura para a produção de hastes para sondagem geológica. São determinados, através de análises metalográficas e ensaios mecânicos, os parâmetros ideais para as etapas de têmpera e revenido, a fim de obter hastes nacionais tratadas com qualidade similar às disponíveis no mercado internacional. A determinação dos parâmetros operacionais do equipamento de indução eletromagnética, para têmpera e revenimento de tubos de aço SAE-1045, utilizados na confecção das hastes, permitiu obter um perfil de dureza sem grandes flutuações de valor, variando suavemente de um valor máximo próximo a 45HRc na extremidade externa da faixa tratada, para um valor mínimo próximo a 35HRc, no final da mesma.

This work describes the production of geological drill rods through electromagnetic induction thermal treatment of tubes. The research aims at determining, through metalography, mechanical tests and field tests, the ideal induction hardening and tempering parameters, to produce drill rods with qualities similar to the ones available in the international market. The determination of the induction hardening and tempering parameters of SAE-1045 steel tubes, for the production of geological drill rods, was capable of producing hardness profiles with low fluctuations in values, ranging from a maximum value of 45HRc close to the extremity, to minimum values close to 35HRc at the end of the treated region.

The properties of a microalloyed steel, with Nb and V in its composition, were studied, after different intercritical thermal treatments and at different austenitizing and tempering temperatures. The mechanical properties of the specimens were measured in a Vickers hardness tester, and their microstructures were analyzed by optical microscopy, with the aid of a digital image processor. After austenitizing at 1100 °C and tempering at 625 °C, the samples showed significantly higher tempering resistance, reflected by their retention of high hardness, which may be associated with a secondary hardening precipitation of Nb carbon nitrides. In the sample with dual-phase microstructure, the martensite volume fraction varied from 18.2 to 26.3% and the ferrite grain size remained unchanged, upon the variation of the time length of the intercritical treatments. Tempered samples showed Vickers hardness (HVN) varying from 327 to 399, and dual-phase samples showed HVN from 362 to 429.

O efeito da temperatura de austenitização sobre a cinética de transformação da austenita em um aço microligado com Nb foi estudado em resfriamento contínuo através da análise térmica diferencial. Verifica-se uma forte dependência da temperatura de início de formação da ferrita alotriomórfica com a temperatura de austenitização devido ao seu efeito sobre o tamanho de grão austenítico. O aumento da temperatura de austenitização implica um aumento no tamanho de grão austenítico e uma diminuição na temperatura de início de transformação da austenita em ferrita. A presença de Nb em solução durante a transformação aumenta o tempo de transformação da austenita em ferrita alotriomórfica, reduz a taxa efetiva de transformação, levando à formação de bainita granular para temperatura de austenitização de 1100ºC e resfriamento no ar.

The effect of austenitization temperature on austenite transformation for a low-carbon steel and microalloyed with Nb was investigated under continuous cooling conditions by means of differential thermal analysis. The starting temperature for ferrite formation depends strongly on austenitization temperature due to its effect on the austenite grain size. Increase in austenitization temperature implies increase in austenite grain size and decrease in temperature starts ferrite formation. The presence of Nb in solution during the transformation increases the transformation time of austenite to ferrite and reduces its effective transformation rate, leading to the formation of granular bainite, at the austenitization temperature of 1100ºC and air cooling.